ON SOVEREIGNTY, SUBSIDIARITY AND POWERS |
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ |
Europe is working hard on a plan that has to extent European cooperation strongly to cope the crisis. The core of politics is at stake; the power over budgets, cuts and making of debt. The fate of the euro area is defined by French and Greek elections, by the behavior of banks and by the drawing of Angela Merkel. Can this serve as example for new ideas on sovereignty? The traditional conception of sovereignty is no longer adapted to the complexity that characterizes relations between countries today. States are identified on each other in all areas, to institutions, companies and international organizations. Not one state is an island anymore, where the national interest can be defended. Countries must have their way of life of cooperation. In partnerships such as the EU, but also through regions. Entering into partnerships implies also that sovereignty is obtained and shared. This paradox must be realized. The national cause does not have to be squandered by ceding sovereignty, but may also be promoted. |
|
Sovereignty is the quality of having supreme, independent authority over a geographic area, such as a territory. It can be found in a power to rule and make law that rests on a political fact for which no purely legal explanation can be provided. In theoretical terms, the idea of "sovereignty", historically, from Socrates to Thomas Hobbes, has always necessitated a moral imperative on the
entity exercising it.
For centuries past, the idea that a state could be sovereign was always connected to its ability to guarantee the best interests of its own citizens. Thus, if a state could not act in the best interests of its own citizens, it could not be thought of as a “sovereign” state. The concept of sovereignty has been discussed throughout history, from the time of the Romans through to the present day. It has changed in its definition, concept, and application throughout, especially during the Age of Enlightenment. The current notion of state sovereignty is often traced back to the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which, in relation to states, codified the basic principles:
National sovereignty is the doctrine that sovereignty belongs to and derives from the nation, an abstract entity normally linked to a physical territory and its past, present, and future citizens.
It is an ideological concept or doctrine derived
from liberal political theory. It traces back to John Locke in late 17th century England and to Montesquieu in 18th century France, the latter especially via Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès pamphlet What is the hird Estate? |
|
|
SOVEREIGNTY |
'Sovereignty and the EU' (October 2013, the latest briefing from the Senior European Experts on Sovereignty and the EU). This paper seeks to clarify a complex subject by explaining what the concept means in theory and in practice.
National sovereignty, a term sometimes used to mean national independence, has to be viewed against the background of the interdependence of modern states. When the concept of the modern nation state emerged about 400 years ago, the Sovereign, i.e. the emperor or king, was relatively free of constraints on his freedom of action (but there were some in England, e.g. Magna Carta). But even then trade and alliances made this freedom relative; Britain’s oldest alliance with another country, for example, dates back to 1373 and the Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of that year. The history of the second half of the twentieth century was one of growing interdependence between nation states but at the same time the number of countries increased because of the break up of empires and the collapse of the Soviet Union. Since the Second World War more and more countries have chosen to pool sovereignty in various fora in order to enhance their security and prosperity, beginning with the formation of the United Nations in 1945, soon followed by NATO in 1949. In the 21st century even the only global superpower, the USA, has found that there are limits on its freedom of action. Parliamentary Sovereignty The notion of parliamentary sovereignty developed in Britain after the “Glorious Revolution” of 1689 removed King James II from the throne and substituted a new sovereign. The phrase conveys the constitutional principle that Parliament has unfettered power which cannot be limited by any other body or person; that means that no Parliament can bind its successors and no court or body can overrule legislation passed by Parliament. “Parliament” means both Houses and not just the House of Commons. The notion of parliamentary sovereignty is held by some to be beyond question and by others to be highly debatable. The concept has been explicitly rejected in the Scottish courts, for example; in an important case in 1953 the then Lord President of the Court of Session said that “the principle of unlimited sovereignty of Parliament is a distinctively English principle and has no counterpart in Scottish constitutional law”. Some have argued that modern developments, such as Britain joining the EU and its signature to the European Convention of Human Rights, has diminished parliamentary sovereignty by the creation of an effective hierarchy of legislation in which some constitutional Acts of Parliament are in practice superior to other Acts. In the context of the EU, advocates of unfettered parliamentary sovereignty argue that the acid test is whether Parliament remains free to change or reverse decisions that the UK Government has agreed to in the Council of Ministers or even Treaties that Parliament has already ratified. The UK Parliament agreed in the European Communities Act 1972 that the UK would accept all legislation adopted in the EU, and the decisions of the European Court of Justice, without any further action by Parliament to implement them being necessary and that the rights and obligations created by such decisions would be enforceable in UK law. So if Parliament were to legislate to overthrow an EU measure, the European Court of Justice would rule this action illegal or invalid as possibly the UK courts would too. If the Government of the day, supported by Parliament, refused to comply, there would be a major crisis and, failing a compromise, Britain would find itself on a path which would lead to withdrawal. This would be so because refusing to accept an EU law would be a breach of our Treaty obligations. The principle that EU law takes precedence over national laws in the areas where the EU has been given power in the Treaties to act was in the Treaty of Rome and confirmed by an important case in the European Court of Justice in 1964. The EU would be unworkable without such a rule as otherwise Member States could choose to ignore any EU law they did not like, leading in all probability, for example, to the collapse of the Single Market. Other notions of sovereignty Sovereignty is used more widely to convey the freedom to decide unilaterally. Nation states are said to give up part of their sovereignty, for example by signing a Treaty or following EU legislation, which removes the right of decision from the national government or parliament in a particular field. Or they are said to share or pool sovereignty by agreeing to common action though EU institutions, thus participating in decisions taken by the EU in accordance with its procedures, and no longer retaining the right to act unilaterally. All countries, both inside and outside the EU, have given up or pooled some sovereignty. Margaret Thatcher said at the time of the 1975 Referendum on Europe: “Almost every major nation has been obliged by the pressures of the post-war world to pool significant areas of sovereignty so as to create more effective political units.” Examples are NATO, the UN or the World Trade Organisation. Nations come together to resist threats to international peace and security, to promote free trade and investment, to protect the environment and to defend human rights, to name but a few areas affected in this way. Each time a country joins an international organisation or signs a treaty, it restricts its freedom of action and thus gives up a part of its sovereignty, even if only a small part. Countries are prepared to pool sovereignty in particular areas because they recognise the practical benefits of doing so. Addressing common problems by participating in collective decision making with appropriate partners in reality gives countries more effective control over global or regional events and problems than they could possibly hope to wield alone. Sovereignty & other international organisations It is often forgotten how much sovereignty/independence Britain has shared outside the EU. In each case, we have done so to secure benefits for the people of this country. NATO of course is the prime example, committing its members to participate in mutual assistance in the common defence if another member is attacked. The increase in the membership of NATO following the collapse of the Soviet Union greatly increased the number of countries to which that commitment applies. The Council of Europe agrees conventions, of which that on Human Rights (with its Court to adjudicate) is of great importance. That on Torture (a UN convention) allows inspections of prisons without warning. In the economic field the IMF can impose conditions if a country gets into financial trouble, as the UK found in 1976. The WTO has strict policies and a mandatory disputes settlement procedure. The idea that we would have unfettered sovereignty outside the EU is therefore incorrect. The future of sovereignty Globalisation, multinational corporations and organisations, the internet, the speed of modern transport and communications have increased the interdependence of nation states and, some would argue, reduced their sovereignty. But the abolition of the nation state does not figure on any serious agenda. Ask any European politician whether his or her country is a sovereign nation state and you will receive an emphatic ‘yes’ for an answer, even if further probing would reveal consciousness of the limitations on its freedom of action. The ability to decide nationally on a whole range of matters, such as taxation, social security, health care systems and education, illegal immigration and drugs policy, is still important to most people. In the particular case of the EU, the Single European Act of 1986, negotiated by Margaret Thatcher, with its substantial increase in the fields covered by majority voting and the nearly 300 directives so far required to complete the Single Market which followed, was a major sharing of sovereignty. But it was necessary if the non-tariff barriers to the free movement of goods, services, capital and people were to come down. That the Single Market is good for Britain is widely accepted and sharing of sovereignty was indispensable to achieve it. Advocates of unfettered sovereignty speak as though sovereignty was not only absolute, but an absolute good. They ignore the fact that in the modern world it has become necessary to give up some freedom of action to achieve common ends. All Member States have evolved checks and balances to ensure that their country’s participation in the EU is subject to democratic scrutiny at home. The UK has adopted legislation requiring a referendum if there is any significant transfer of sovereignty to the EU in future (there is tension between parliamentary sovereignty and making decisions by plebiscite which was not resolved in the debate on the European Union Bill in 2011). Over the last 15 years the EU has seen the development of differing levels of participation in aspects of EU policy. Currently 18 Member States share a common currency in the euro and 10 do not. Similarly, 26 European countries belong to the Schengen passport free area but that includes four non-EU states and excludes six EU Member States. There are specific opt-outs for the UK, Ireland and Denmark in other areas too. This development of differing levels of participation within the EU (often referred to as “variable geometry”) has challenged the notion of the EU as a single block in which all Member States pool their sovereignty to an identical degree and in a uniform system. The reality is that Member States are, in some specific areas, sharing differing amounts of sovereignty according to their own calculation of where their national interest lies. The reality is also that both in the EU and elsewhere, pooling of sovereignty to achieve shared objectives will continue. International crime, money laundering, trade, foreign policy, the environment and action against terrorism are only some of the things that require common action. The judgement as to whether to act in common or not in each case will continue to be made on the basis of practical arguments about efficacy and the proper application of the principle of subsidiarity, meaning that the EU should only act where it has the power to do so and because that would be more effective than action at a Member State or a lower level. It is the role of the Heads of Government to ensure that the democratically elected representatives of the Member States remain the driving force behind EU action. But many things do not require any pooling of sovereignty. The key question is whether in any given case, Britain’s interests would be damaged or promoted by choosing to act independently. In many fields which require joint action it is clear that the value of full participation outweighs the theoretical freedom we would gain by standing aside, allowing others to shape the policy. There is now a general and a subject specific debate inside the EU about where the boundary should lie between the EU and the Member States. Several Member States have suggested that the balance needs to change. Sovereignty is a dynamic and not a static concept. It is also in practice relative, not absolute. Much sovereignty has been shared already within and outside the EU, but the sovereign nation state will be a key actor for the foreseeable future, even if its influence over some areas of policy will be less than in the past. Countries will best protect and further their interests by exercising some of their sovereignty collectively to achieve their aims. |
SUBSIDIARITY |
Gastbeitrag Europa vom Kopf auf die Füße stellen, Von Erwin Teufel, 30.03.2014: Das Subsidiaritätsprinzip ist die Lösung für fast alle Probleme der Europäischen Union. Öffentliche Aufgaben sollen so nah wie möglich an den Menschen erledigt werden.
In Deutschland sind heute Zustimmung zur Europäischen Union und Ablehnung zwei Seiten einer Medaille. Die stabile und mehrheitliche Zustimmung beruht auf der europäischen Geschichte. Seit dem großen Frieden in Europa, der den Dreißigjährigen Krieg beendet hat, dem Frieden von Münster und Osnabrück, den man auch den „Ewigen Frieden“ genannt hat, hat es in Europa nicht weniger als 48 Kriege gegeben. Jede Nachkriegszeit wurde zur Vorkriegszeit. Im 20. Jahrhundert wurden die europäischen Kriege zu Weltkriegen mit über 14 Millionen Toten im Ersten Weltkrieg und über 50 Millionen Toten im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Nach der totalitären Zerstörung der Städte, nach Vertreibung und Flucht von Millionen Menschen aus ihrer angestammten Heimat, nach der geistigen Verwüstung durch totalitäre Ideologien kam es zur Besinnung im Denken der Überlebenden. Winston Churchill, Robert Schuman, Jean Monnet, Alcide De Gasperi, Konrad Adenauer und Paul-Henri Spaak haben mit Weitblick und Mut in schwierigster Nachkriegszeit eine neue Politik eingeleitet. Die Vereinigten Staaten haben aus dem zerstörten Deutschland keine Reparationen herausgepresst, sondern mit dem Marshall-Plan geholfen und einen Neubeginn ermöglicht. Obwohl die Wunden des Zweiten Weltkriegs, die jede Familie getroffen haben, noch nicht verheilt waren, wuchs langsam, aber stetig das gegenseitige Vertrauen unter den europäischen Völkern und ihren Regierungen. Zum ersten Mal wurde eine Nachkriegszeit bei uns nicht wieder zur Vorkriegszeit. Wir haben im Westen und in der Mitte Europas seit 70 Jahren keinen Krieg. Es wächst bei uns die dritte Generation heran, die keinen Krieg erlebt hat. Wann hat es dies in unserer Geschichte gegeben? Jeder, der bei Verstand ist, ist Europäer Diese Zeit des Friedens und der Freiheit und des Rechtsstaates ist kein Zufall, sondern das Ergebnis weitsichtiger Politik und enger Zusammenarbeit. Es ist das Ergebnis der Europäischen Gemeinschaft von Kohle und Stahl, der Europäischen Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft, der Europäischen Union. Der Gedanke und die realistische Politik der sechs Gründerstaaten waren so attraktiv, dass im Laufe der Jahre die Gemeinschaft von sechs auf acht, dann auf zehn, auf zwölf, dann auf 15 wuchs. Die große Zeitenwende des Jahres 1989 in Europa hat die Erweiterung auf 25 und jetzt 28 Staaten ermöglicht. |
|
Furcht vor der Vorherrschaft der Deutschen Mark
Dies alles wird Europa angelastet, ob zu Recht oder zu Unrecht. Es ist eine Realität und ein großes Hindernis für notwendige Reformmaßnahmen, die ganz Europa weiterbringen. Was ist die Lösung? Einhaltung und Konkretisierung der Stabilitätskriterien Bundeskanzler Helmut Kohl und sein Finanzminister Theo Waigel setzten als Ersatz für die Politische Union wesentliche Stabilitätskriterien für die Einführung des Euro durch. Erstens: 3 Prozent Höchstverschuldung eines Mitgliedstaates, gemessen am eigenen Bruttosozialprodukt. Zweitens: eine Höchstverschuldung von 60 Prozent des Bruttosozialprodukts. Drittens: die Unabhängigkeit der Europäischen Zentralbank und ihre Aufgabenbegrenzung auf die Stabilität des Euro. Und viertens: die Nichtbeistandsklausel. Kein Staat der Eurozone darf für die Schulden eines anderen Mitgliedslandes haften. Notwendige Rechtsregeln auf europäischer Ebene Über die geltenden Stabilitätskriterien hinaus müssen weitere verbindliche und überwachte Regeln beschlossen werden: 1. keine Staatsfinanzierung durch die EZB Derzeit ist in vielen Länderregierungen der Mitgliedstaaten der Eurozone der Wille zu diesen Regelungen erlahmt. Viele sagen oder hoffen, die Euro-Krise sei überwunden. Das ist nur in Ansätzen der Fall, und die Krise kann sich jederzeit wieder verstärken, und ihre Auswirkungen belasten noch viele Jahre die Mitgliedstaaten und ihre Bürger. Deshalb muss jetzt alles getan werden, um das Schwelen der Krise einzudämmen und einen Neuausbruch zu verhindern. Die EU muss für die notwendigen Rechtsregeln auf der europäischen Ebene die Regierungen und Parlamente der Mitgliedstaaten gewinnen. Sie muss aber auch und in erster Linie die Bürger der Europäischen Union, die gegen weitere Aufgabenverlagerungen nach Europa sind, gewinnen. Wie kann das gelingen? Nur durch eine konsequente Anwendung des Subsidiaritätsprinzips. Es darf keine Einbahnstraße für Aufgabenverlagerungen von den Mitgliedstaaten zur EU geben. Es muss Gegenverkehr geben. Der Kreis als Selbstverwaltungsebene Das Subsidiaritätsprinzip ist die Lösung für fast alle Probleme der Europäischen Union. Es denkt Europa vom Bürger her und will Europa von unten nach oben bauen und nicht den Menschen über den Kopf stülpen. Europa muss vom Kopf auf die Füße gestellt werden. Was über die Kraft der Länder hinausgeht ist europäische Aufgabe Nur was über die Kräfte eines Landkreises oder Stadtkreises geht, ist Aufgabe des Landes, in europäischer Sprache der Region. Zentrale Landesaufgabe ist die Bildungspolitik, von den Schulen bis zu den Hochschulen. Lehrerausbildung und Lehrerbesoldung und Lehrerweiterbildung. Wissenschaftliche Lehre und Forschung an den Hochschulen und Universitäten. Eine weitere wichtige Aufgabe der Länder ist die innere Sicherheit, eine leistungsfähige Polizei, eine gute und unabhängige Gerichtsbarkeit, eine Strukturpolitik für leistungsschwächere Landesteile, Förderung der Existenzgründungen und des Mittelstandes, des Handwerks und der Landwirtschaft. Die Förderung vom Kindergarten bis zum Altenpflegeheim, die Ausbildung von Erzieherinnen bis zu den Altenpflegerinnen. Die Länder müssen Hilfe zur Selbsthilfe leisten und eine menschliche Gemeinschaft ermöglichen. Ein Projekt das allen nutzt Von allen anderen Aufgaben soll Europa die Finger lassen, weil sie auf der Ebene der Kommunen oder Länder oder Nationalstaaten besser, billiger, bürgernäher, problemnäher, effizienter erledigt werden können. Europa ist nicht dann stark, wenn es sich um tausend Aufgaben kümmert und um tausenderlei Aufgaben, sondern wenn es sich um die richtigen Aufgaben kümmert. Was die richtigen Aufgaben sind, kann man nach dem Subsidiaritätsprinzip ganz genau definieren. Erfolge der EU müssen in jeder Generation neu erworben werden Nun ist es unser aller Erfahrung, dass eine politische Ebene an ihren ihr in Jahren zugewachsenen Aufgaben hängt. Insbesondere hängen diejenigen Menschen an ihnen, die als Mitarbeiter an dieser Aufgabenerledigung arbeiten. Sie wollen ihren Arbeitsplatz nicht verlieren. Der jeweils zuständige Kommissar will nicht Aufgaben verlieren. Das Europäische Parlament fürchtet Kompetenzverluste. Deshalb müssen andere Ebenen konkrete Vorschläge unterbreiten, beispielsweise der Rat der Regionen Europas, der Europäische Rat mit der Erfahrung der nationalen Regierungen und Minister, der Bundestag und der Bundesrat, die Länderparlamente, die kommunalen Landesverbände, Landräte und Bürgermeister. Die Verhandlungsführer der Mitgliedstaaten brauchen konkrete Vorschläge, und sie müssen sie auch durchsetzen, weil nur dann auf der Gegenseite der Übertrag wichtiger Aufgaben nach Europa gelingt. |
What Is the Third Estate? |
|